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Hydroxychloroquine HCQ; Plaquenil is used increasingly in the management of a variety of autoimmune disorders, with well established roles in dermatology and rheumatology and emerging roles in oncology. Hydroxychloroquine has demonstrated a survival benefit in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus; some clinicians advocate its use in all such patients. However, Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine CQ have been associated with irreversible visual loss due to retinal toxicity. Hydroxychloroquine retinal toxicity is far more common than previously considered; an overall prevalence of 7.

We summarise emerging treatment indications and evidence of efficacy in systemic disease, risk factors for retinopathy, prevalence among HCQ users, diagnostic tests, and management of HCQ retinopathy. We highlight emerging risk factors such as tamoxifen use, and new guidance on safe dosing, reversing the previous recommendation to use ideal body weight, rather than actual body weight.

We summarise uncertainties and the recommendations made by existing HCQ screening programmes. Asian patients with HCQ retinopathy may demonstrate an extramacular or pericentral pattern of disease; visual field testing and retinal imaging should include a wider field for screening in this group. HCQ is generally safe and effective for the treatment of systemic disease but because of the risk of HCQ retinal toxicity, modern screening methods and ideal dosing should be implemented. Guidelines regarding optimal dosing and screening regarding HCQ need to be more widely disseminated.

Hydroxychloroquine HCQ: trade name, Plaquenil and chloroquine CQ: trade name, Aralen are drugs established in the treatment of autoimmune disease and skin disorders, but are also emerging as a treatment option in oncology and paediatric inflammatory disorders. The expanding indications for HCQ, adjunctive use with biologic drugs and other disease modifying therapies, its role in the maintenance of disease remission, and favourable systemic safety profile during long-term use, predict a large and growing patient cohort on long-term HCQ therapy in developed nations.

It is crucial therefore that Ophthalmologists are aware of the indications for HCQ, identify risk factors for disease, request appropriate tests and know how to interpret them. The appropriate delivery of screening in accordance with a nationally agreed consensus recommendation is likely to minimize the risk of irreversible visual loss in this patient group. Chloroquine was developed in , and through additional of an hydroxyl group, its analogue, HCQ was developed soon after and has been used since the s.

For this clinical indication, higher doses of chloroquine were used over a shorter period. Since then the use of chloroquine in the treatment of falciparum malaria has declined on account of widespread chloroquine resistance. HCQ was found to be less toxic and more effective than chloroquine. Hydroxychloroquine is now commonly used in a range of disorders Table 1 , most commonly non-organ specific autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus SLE , rheumatoid arthritis, and mixed connective tissue disorders.

HCQ modulates immune responses through several mechanisms. HCQ inhibits toll-like receptors 7 and 9 in dendritic cells, inhibiting interferon-alpha production. The indications for HCQ use are expanding: it is increasingly used in photosensitive dermatological disorders such as discoid lupus and porphyria cutanea tarda.

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HCQ inhibits autophagy, a property that may reduce resistance to chemotherapeutic agents in oncology. The use of HCQ is increasing due to: a growing list of clinical indications, increasing confidence amongst physicians to start treatment, few systemic adverse effects necessitating treatment cessation and adjunctive use in conjunction with a range of primary therapies such as biologic agents. After 5 years, these patients will require screening. There are relatively few contraindications to HCQ. The manufacturer lists them as follows: known hypersensitivity to 4-aminoquinolone compounds, pre-existing maculopathy, and pregnancy.

The manufacturer, 12 and previous best practice clinical guidelines, 22 , 24 have traditionally suggested dosing based on ideal body weight IBW , rather than actual body weight ABW , to reduce the risk of retinal toxicity. However, recent evidence suggests that dosing based on ABW is more predictive of toxicity and is more accurate over a broad range of body habitus.

Hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil)

This change in prescribing recommendation for HCQ may be more practical in rheumatology clinics, as it has been shown that calculating dose of HCQ based on IBW is not undertaken on the majority of HCQ patients Worth et al , — unpublished data. The drug dose can then be adjusted accordingly. The manufacturer lists reported adverse events attributed to HCQ therapy. HCQ has been reported to cause severe hypoglycaemia in patients with diabetes taking hypoglycaemic drugs, and rarely, bone marrow suppression or skeletal muscle weakness 12 There have been reports of fulminant hepatic failure in patients with no pre-existing liver disease soon after the initiation of HCQ treatment.

HCQ has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of diabetes, thrombosis and dyslipidaemia in patients with SLE 5 , and demonstrates a protective effect on renal function in lupus nephritis.


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The duration of HCQ therapy for most rheumatic diseases is not clearly defined. The general principles of managing rheumatoid arthritis are to achieve disease control as rapidly as possible, usually with combinations of different disease modifying agents, often including HCQ. Subsequently, once patients achieve remission, the aim is to minimise drug doses where feasible, but this is usually applied to reducing doses of the more potent and potentially more toxic anti-rheumatic drug therapy, rather than changing the dose of HCQ.

In a recent study, the use of long-term triple therapy of HCQ, sulfasalazine and methotrexate was compared with use of a biologic agent in combination with methotrexate and showed the advantages of using a biologic drug in combination; no significant toxicity from the use of HCQ in patients was reported.

The mechanism of HCQ related retinal toxicity is uncertain. One recent study identified that both chloroquine and HCQ strongly inhibit the uptake activity of an organic anion transporting polypeptide 1A2 OATP1A2 , expressed in human retinal pigment epithelium RPE cells, which is involved in the recycling of all-trans-retinol, suggesting a possible effect of HCQ on the visual cycle. An evaluation of ocular tissues after long term administration of chloroquine in rhesus monkeys revealed widespread binding of chloroquine in pigmented ocular tissues: the RPE, iris, choroid and ciliary body with eventual accumulation observed in the retina.

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This may result in outer retinal and photoreceptor degeneration with later, secondary degeneration of the RPE. Further work is required to establish the exact sequence of events in HCQ retinal toxicity. The risk factors detailed below are recognised to increase the risk of HCQ retinopathy. The sum of risk factors can provide an estimation of risk for a given individual.

The Royal College of Ophthalmologists RCOphth joint guidelines from suggest referral to an Ophthalmologist for patients who have received continuous HCQ therapy for more than 5 years.

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The manufacturers of HCQ do not specify a duration of drug use after which ophthalmological evaluation should be sought. AAO screening guidelines from , 25 AAO guidelines screening guidelines from , 24 Royal College of Ophthalmologists joint guidelines , 22 and those from the manufacturer, Sanofi 12 are summarized. HCQ has been traditionally prescribed at doses below 6.

Ophthalmologists and rheumatologists should be aware of this important change in best practice for drug dosing. Dosing by ABW is more practical and eliminates the need to measure patient height and select an appropriate formula in order to calculate the IBW. It was omitted entirely from the pivotal epidemiological study by Melles and Marmor, and was consequently omitted as a major risk factor in the recent AAO guidelines, which are based heavily on this study. The manufacturers of HCQ suggest that pre-existing maculopathy is a contraindication to treatment, 12 and the AAO criteria state it as a risk factor for the development of HCQ retinopathy.

Macular disorders should be identified at baseline by Ophthalmologists as part of AAO guidelines 24 and baseline examination within the first year of treatment is advised in the guidelines. HCQ is renally excreted and consequently renal impairment is likely to increase the circulating concentration of the drug and risk of toxicity.

In a large study evaluating the systemic factors that determine serum concentration of HCQ, renal failure was associated with a significantly higher serum HCQ concentration.

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However, HCQ has a protective effect on lupus nephritis in this patient group. Tamoxifen has come under scrutiny as potentially causing a dose-dependent maculopathy that may concurrently increase the risk of HCQ toxicity. A retrospective case-control series of patients taking HCQ for at least 5 years found that there was a significant increased risk of retinopathy in patients taking tamoxifen OR: 4. It is notable that tamoxifen use was found to have a greater odds ratio than renal impairment OR: 2.

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Crystalline retinopathy, macular oedema, pigmentary retinopathy, and reversible corneal changes have been described in patients taking tamoxifen. One study evaluated the effect of tamoxifen on cultured RPE cells, finding lysosomal destabilization and cathepsin release prior to regulated cell death in cultured RPE cells.

Median duration of treatment in this series was This small series suggests a potential increased incidence of HCQ retinopathy in the context of pre-existing graft-versus-host disease and earlier development of retinal toxicity. This could explain the apparent idiosyncratic retinal reaction of patients presenting with retinal toxicity.

Five patients were found to have variants in this gene.